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CT scan images of samples (a) A1, (b) A7 and (c) A10. The colour scale represents the local pore-space volume in the digital model.

Tectonic background and stations at source region. Red and green triangles represent broad-band and short-period seismometers, respectively. Blue circles are the epicentres of aftershocks (Y. Kuang & J. Li 2025). Yellow stars on the left and right sides give the location of MW 7.8 main shock and MW 7.3 aftershock, respectively. Black lines show the main tectonics: STD—Southern Tibetan Detachment System, MCT—Main Central Thrust fault, MBT—Main Boundary Thrust fault, MFT—Main Frontal Thrust fault, TYCR—Tangra Yum Co Rift, KCF—Kung Co Rift. NR, MR, and SR are different regions in the north-south direction, respectively. The focal mechanisms are the results of the Gorkha earthquake and some aftershocks (X. Wang et al. 2017; L. Bai et al. 2019; M.M. Mendoza et al. 2019). The lower left inset shows the movement of the Indian plate, and blue arrows give the GPS velocity field reference to the Eurasian plate (M. Wang & Z. Shen 2020).

Study area. (a) Study area and station distribution; a–d denote representative hydrological stations on the four major rivers in Guangdong. (b) Mean annual precipitation over the Pearl River Basin. (c) Seasonal cycles of precipitation and air temperature in Guangdong.

Overview of the ADEPT data set and S_(diff) ray path coverage. Please see the paper for the full caption.

Variation of the absolute spectral amplitude of vertical (⁠⁠|T_z|) and horizontal (⁠⁠|T_x|) ground motion components as a function of frequency and angle of incidence for an incident S wave.

Distribution of seismic stations in the central-north region of the Gulf of California, Mexico. The solid lines of different colours represent various paths from a common station in relation to different earthquake number. The dashed lines of different colours represent various paths of the reference station relative to other stations with which seismic noise cross-correlation was performed.

Map showing the 42 main faults of the Central Apennines modelled in the simulator. Fault traces are numbered according to their order in the model input files. The polygon delineates the study region adopted from O. Scotti et al. (2021) and used here for analysis. The Leonessa fault (number 13) differs from the other modelled faults in having an opposite dip direction. Earthquake epicentres are from the CPTI15 catalogue (A. Rovida et al. 2022) covering the period 1005–2020 CE. Detailed geometric and kinematic parameters are listed in Supplementary material Table S1.

Summary diagram. Each method corresponds to one ellipse. The ellipse colours indicate the mathematical model, as specified in the top left corner. Grey arrows highlight connections between methods.

$(a) (Color online) Seismicity from 2010 to 2025 (BCSF–RéNaSS 2026); dot size and colour scale with local magnitude. The Lacq seismicity lies within the black square, north of the main Pyrenean seismicity belt and close to the city of Pau. Faults are shown as thick blue lines. (b) Location of the Pyrenean region, straddling the France–Spain border. (c) South–north cross-section of the recent Lacq seismicity (2021–2026) obtained in this study; earthquakes are plotted as dots coloured by longitude. The deep gas reservoir is outlined by the light red contour at ∼4–5 km depth, whereas the shallow oil reservoir (green) lies at ∼1 km. Thick black lines are faults and the blue contours mark the fractured Jurassic layers beneath the reservoir, where most of the seismicity occurs. The two injection wells LA102 & LA109 are represented by the purple lines. Faults and layers represent a conceptual model of the geological and structural setting, adapted from J.R. Grasso et al. (2021).$

Laboratory SIP measurements on synthetic samples. (a) Electronically conductive inclusions: Gr granules (1), 10 mm Gr rods (2), 20 mm Gr rods (3), Cu granules (4), 10 mm Cu rods (5) and 20 mm Cu rods (6). (b) Photograph showing the random orientation (to the extent possible) of a sample with Cu rods. (c) Photograph of sample holder containing mixture. (d) Schematic diagram of the experimental setup with Gr texture-sand mixtures (disseminated grains, 10 and 20 mm graphite rods).

Geophysical Journal International special collection on Marmara and North Anatolian Fault Zones. OUP.

Plotted as colour gradations are predictions of the sine (a, c) and cosine (b, d) components of the peak-to-peak annual oscillation in elastic displacements produced by change in continental water and barystatic ocean as estimated by Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). Observations of this annual oscillation are plotted as circles for SLR sites in ILRS2020 data (a, b) and as pentagons for GPS sites in B. Haines et al. (2024) (c, d). The circles and pentagons are filled with colours depicting the observed sine and cosine components of the annual oscillation. If the observations and predictions were correct, then the colour inside each circle would match the colour on the map behind the circle. Contours are at intervals of 5 mm. The 0 mm contour is not plotted. Minimum and maximum values of annual oscillation are given as numerals.

Synthetic seismic displacement time histories of the single-slope topography under SH wave incidence at gamma = 45°⁠: ⁠(a) alpha = 90°, (b) alpha = 45°.

(a) Regional gravity map (Complete Bouguer Anomaly) and (b) survey zoom-in with the regional Total Magnetic Intensity (TMI) background map. The locations of the MT stations are indicated by inverted triangles. The interpreted linear structures (GSWA 2020) are shown in both maps, with the Rodona Shear Zone highlighted. The AusAEM lines including the ones used for the static shift correction are shown in (a).

Surface view of the Mygdonian basin around the Euroseistest stations (blue triangles) showing the position of the S14 station (red star), where large time variations of H/V measurements were observed. The station is located atop of a blind fault, whose interpreted surface trace is indicated by the thick grey line. The basin limits are represented with black dashed lines. Major roads are indicated, in particular the Egnatia highway (pink) to the north. The compass rose indicates the angle relative to north, used to measure the polarization of H/V (see text for details).

Map of Northwest Queensland classified with the stratigraphic age, showing the locations of MINQ network stations (red triangles) and main mineral deposits. The inset shows the survey position on the Australian lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary tomography from M.J. Hoggard et al. (2020) and estimated major Australian Craton margin from Geoscience Australia.

The Tournemire Underground Research Laboratory (URL) used to study the transport properties of the Toarcian claystone. (a). Geological map. (b). Cross-section. The URL is located in a former railway tunnel almost 2 km long that was dug between 1882 and 1888. The clay formations of the Lower Jurassic are made up of well-compacted clays and marls, over 250 m thick (Domerian 50–58 m and Toarcian over 200 m). The Toarcian is a clayrock, the Domerian is a marl and the Carexian, Sinemurian, Aalenian, Bajocian and Bathonian stages correspond to different types of limestones. The Toarcian stage span from 184.2 to 174.7 ± 0.8 Ma. The Hettangian formation corresponds to a sandstone. The Triassic formation includes sandstones, limestones and clays.

Eikonal tomography of Kilauea. Please see the paper for the full caption.

(a) 6862 reservoirs in the database of W. Hawley et al. (2020) with the size of the symbol being proportional to the logarithm of capacity (scale shown on inset). (b) Volume of impounded water in units of global mean sea level change as a function of time.